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Security+ Lab Series Lab 1 Network Devices and Technologies – Capturing Network Traffic Review

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Family of Unix-like operating systems

Linux
Tux the penguin

Tux the penguin, mascot of Linux[i]

Programmer Customs contributors
Linus Torvalds
Written in C, assembly languages, and others
OS family Unix-like
Working state Electric current
Source model Open source
Initial release September 17, 1991; 30 years ago  (1991-09-17)
Repository git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/torvalds/linux.git/
Marketing target Cloud computing, embedded devices, mainframe computers, mobile devices, personal computers, servers, supercomputers
Available in Multilingual
Platforms Alpha, ARC, ARM, C6x, C-Sky, H8/300, Hexagon, IA-64, m68k, Microblaze, MIPS, Nios II, OpenRISC, PA-RISC, PowerPC, RISC-Five, s390, SuperH, SPARC, x86, Xtensa
Kernel type Monolithic
Userland GNU[a], BusyBox[b]
Default
user interface
  • Unix beat out (CLI)
  • Most distributions include a desktop surround (GUI)
License GPLv2[9] and others (the name "Linux" is a trademark[c])
Official website world wide web.kernel.org
Articles in the series
Linux kernel
Linux distribution

Linux ( LEE-nuuks or LIN-uuks)[xi] is a family of open-source Unix-like operating systems based on the Linux kernel,[12] an operating organisation kernel first released on September 17, 1991, by Linus Torvalds.[13] [14] [15] Linux is typically packaged in a Linux distribution.

Distributions include the Linux kernel and supporting system software and libraries, many of which are provided past the GNU Projection. Many Linux distributions use the word "Linux" in their name, but the Free Software Foundation uses the name "GNU/Linux" to emphasize the importance of GNU software, causing some controversy.[16] [17]

Popular Linux distributions[18] [19] [20] include Debian, Fedora Linux, and Ubuntu, which in itself has many different distributions and modifications, Including Lubuntu and Xubuntu. Commercial distributions include Red Hat Enterprise Linux and SUSE Linux Enterprise. Desktop Linux distributions include a windowing system such every bit X11 or Wayland, and a desktop surroundings such every bit GNOME or KDE Plasma. Distributions intended for servers may omit graphics altogether, or include a solution stack such as LAMP. Because Linux is freely redistributable, anyone may create a distribution for whatsoever purpose.[21]

Linux was originally developed for personal computers based on the Intel x86 architecture, simply has since been ported to more platforms than any other operating system.[22] Because of the dominance of the Linux-based Android on smartphones, Linux also has the largest installed base of all general-purpose operating systems.[23] [24] [25] [26] Although Linux is used past only effectually 2.three percent of desktop computers,[27] [28] the Chromebook, which runs the Linux kernel-based Chrome OS, dominates the Us K–12 teaching market and represents most 20 percentage of sub-$300 notebook sales in the US.[29] Linux is the leading operating system on servers (over 96.4% of the tiptop i meg web servers' operating systems are Linux),[thirty] leads other large iron systems such as mainframe computers, and is the only OS used on TOP500 supercomputers (since November 2017, having gradually eliminated all competitors).[31] [32] [33]

Linux also runs on embedded systems, i.eastward. devices whose operating system is typically congenital into the firmware and is highly tailored to the system. This includes routers, automation controls, smart abode technology, televisions (Samsung and LG Smart TVs use Tizen and WebOS, respectively),[34] [35] [36] automobiles (for example, Tesla, Audi, Mercedes-Benz, Hyundai, and Toyota all rely on Linux),[37] digital video recorders, video game consoles, and smartwatches.[38] The Falcon ix's and the Dragon two's avionics utilize a customized version of Linux.[39]

Linux is i of the most prominent examples of free and open-source software collaboration. The source code may be used, modified and distributed commercially or not-commercially by anyone under the terms of its respective licenses, such as the GNU Full general Public License.[21]

History [edit]

Precursors [edit]

The Unix operating arrangement was conceived and implemented in 1969, at AT&T'southward Bell Labs, in the United States by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Douglas McIlroy, and Joe Ossanna.[xl] Offset released in 1971, Unix was written entirely in associates language, as was common practice at the time. In 1973 in a primal, pioneering arroyo, information technology was rewritten in the C programming language by Dennis Ritchie (with the exception of some hardware and I/O routines). The availability of a loftier-level linguistic communication implementation of Unix made its porting to different estimator platforms easier.[41]

Due to an earlier antitrust case forbidding it from entering the computer business organization, AT&T was required to license the operating organisation's source code to anyone who asked. As a issue, Unix grew quickly and became widely adopted by academic institutions and businesses. In 1984, AT&T divested itself of Bell Labs; freed of the legal obligation requiring free licensing, Bell Labs began selling Unix as a proprietary product, where users were non legally allowed to modify Unix.

The GNU Project, started in 1983 by Richard Stallman, had the goal of creating a "complete Unix-uniform software organization" composed entirely of free software. Work began in 1984.[42] Later, in 1985, Stallman started the Costless Software Foundation and wrote the GNU General Public License (GNU GPL) in 1989. By the early on 1990s, many of the programs required in an operating system (such equally libraries, compilers, text editors, a command-line shell, and a windowing organisation) were completed, although depression-level elements such as device drivers, daemons, and the kernel, called GNU Hurd, were stalled and incomplete.[43]

MINIX was created by Andrew S. Tanenbaum, a computer science professor, and released in 1987 as a minimal Unix-similar operating organisation targeted at students and others who wanted to learn operating organization principles. Although the complete source code of MINIX was freely bachelor, the licensing terms prevented it from existence free software until the licensing changed in April 2000.[44]

Although not released until 1992, due to legal complications, development of 386BSD, from which NetBSD, OpenBSD and FreeBSD descended, predated that of Linux.

Linus Torvalds has stated on split up occasions that if the GNU kernel or 386BSD had been available at the time (1991), he probably would not accept created Linux.[45] [46]

Cosmos [edit]

In 1991, while attending the University of Helsinki, Torvalds became curious near operating systems.[47] Frustrated by the licensing of MINIX, which at the time limited it to educational employ only,[44] he began to piece of work on his own operating system kernel, which somewhen became the Linux kernel.

Torvalds began the evolution of the Linux kernel on MINIX and applications written for MINIX were also used on Linux. Later, Linux matured and further Linux kernel development took place on Linux systems.[48] GNU applications as well replaced all MINIX components, because it was advantageous to apply the freely available code from the GNU Projection with the fledgling operating organisation; lawmaking licensed under the GNU GPL can exist reused in other computer programs as long as they too are released under the same or a compatible license. Torvalds initiated a switch from his original license, which prohibited commercial redistribution, to the GNU GPL.[49] Developers worked to integrate GNU components with the Linux kernel, making a fully functional and costless operating system.[50]

Naming [edit]

5.25-inch floppy disks holding a very early on version of Linux

Linus Torvalds had wanted to call his invention "Freax", a portmanteau of "costless", "freak", and "ten" (every bit an innuendo to Unix). During the start of his work on the organization, some of the projection's makefiles included the name "Freax" for virtually half a twelvemonth. Initially, Torvalds considered the name "Linux" but dismissed it as too egotistical.[51]

To facilitate development, the files were uploaded to the FTP server (ftp.funet.fi) of FUNET in September 1991. Ari Lemmke, Torvalds' coworker at the Helsinki University of Technology (HUT) who was one of the volunteer administrators for the FTP server at the time, did not think that "Freax" was a skillful proper noun, so he named the project "Linux" on the server without consulting Torvalds.[51] Later, still, Torvalds consented to "Linux".

According to a newsgroup mail service by Torvalds,[11] the word "Linux" should be pronounced ( LIN-uuks) with a short 'i' equally in 'print' and 'u' every bit in 'put'. To further demonstrate how the word "Linux" should exist pronounced, he included an audio guide ( listen(help·info) ) with the kernel source code.[52] Yet, in this recording, he pronounces 'Linux' ( LEEN-uuks) with a brusque only close front unrounded vowel.

Commercial and pop uptake [edit]

Ubuntu, a popular Linux distribution

Adoption of Linux in production environments, rather than being used just by hobbyists, started to take off first in the mid-1990s in the supercomputing community, where organizations such every bit NASA started to supersede their increasingly expensive machines with clusters of inexpensive commodity computers running Linux. Commercial apply began when Dell and IBM, followed by Hewlett-Packard, started offer Linux support to escape Microsoft's monopoly in the desktop operating organisation market.[53]

Today, Linux systems are used throughout calculating, from embedded systems to virtually all supercomputers,[33] [54] and accept secured a place in server installations such as the popular LAMP application stack. Use of Linux distributions in home and enterprise desktops has been growing.[55] [56] [57] [58] [59] [sixty] [61] Linux distributions have likewise become pop in the netbook market, with many devices shipping with customized Linux distributions installed, and Google releasing their own Chrome Bone designed for netbooks.

Linux'due south greatest success in the consumer market is perhaps the mobile device market, with Android existence the ascendant operating system on smartphones and very popular on tablets and, more recently, on wearables. Linux gaming is likewise on the rise with Valve showing its support for Linux and rolling out SteamOS, its own gaming-oriented Linux distribution. Linux distributions have also gained popularity with various local and national governments, such equally the federal authorities of Brazil.[62]

Electric current evolution [edit]

Greg Kroah-Hartman is the lead maintainer for the Linux kernel and guides its development.[63] William John Sullivan is the executive director of the Free Software Foundation,[64] which in turn supports the GNU components.[65] Finally, individuals and corporations develop third-political party non-GNU components. These third-party components contain a vast body of piece of work and may include both kernel modules and user applications and libraries.

Linux vendors and communities combine and distribute the kernel, GNU components, and non-GNU components, with additional package management software in the form of Linux distributions.

Design [edit]

Many open source developers agree that the Linux kernel was not designed but rather evolved through natural selection. Torvalds considers that although the pattern of Unix served as a scaffolding, "Linux grew with a lot of mutations – and considering the mutations were less than random, they were faster and more directed than alpha-particles in Dna."[66] Eric South. Raymond considers Linux's revolutionary aspects to be social, not technical: before Linux, complex software was designed advisedly past modest groups, but "Linux evolved in a completely different way. From about the beginning, it was rather casually hacked on by huge numbers of volunteers coordinating but through the Internet. Quality was maintained not by rigid standards or autocracy only by the naively elementary strategy of releasing every week and getting feedback from hundreds of users inside days, creating a sort of rapid Darwinian selection on the mutations introduced past developers."[67] Bryan Cantrill, an engineer of a competing OS, agrees that "Linux wasn't designed, it evolved", but considers this to be a limitation, proposing that some features, specially those related to security,[68] cannot exist evolved into, "this is non a biological system at the end of the day, information technology's a software organisation."[69] A Linux-based system is a modular Unix-like operating system, deriving much of its bones design from principles established in Unix during the 1970s and 1980s. Such a system uses a monolithic kernel, the Linux kernel, which handles process command, networking, admission to the peripherals, and file systems. Device drivers are either integrated directly with the kernel, or added as modules that are loaded while the system is running.[70]

The GNU userland is a fundamental part of most systems based on the Linux kernel, with Android existence the notable exception. The Projection's implementation of the C library works as a wrapper for the system calls of the Linux kernel necessary to the kernel-userspace interface, the toolchain is a wide collection of programming tools vital to Linux development (including the compilers used to build the Linux kernel itself), and the coreutils implement many basic Unix tools. The project besides develops Fustigate, a pop CLI shell. The graphical user interface (or GUI) used by well-nigh Linux systems is built on superlative of an implementation of the Ten Window Organisation.[71] More than recently, the Linux community seeks to advance to Wayland as the new brandish server protocol in place of X11. Many other open-source software projects contribute to Linux systems.

Diverse layers within Linux, likewise showing separation between the userland and kernel space
User mode User applications bash, LibreOffice, GIMP, Blender, 0 A.D., Mozilla Firefox, ...
System components init daemon:
OpenRC, runit, systemd... 		System daemons:
polkitd, smbd, sshd, udevd... 		Window manager:
X11, Wayland, SurfaceFlinger (Android) 		Graphics:
Mesa, AMD Catalyst, ... 		Other libraries:
GTK, Qt, EFL, SDL, SFML, FLTK, GNUstep, ...
C standard library fopen, execv, malloc, memcpy, localtime, pthread_create... (upward to 2000 subroutines)
glibc aims to be fast, musl and uClibc target embedded systems, bionic written for Android, etc. All aim to be POSIX/SUS-uniform.
Kernel fashion Linux kernel stat, splice, dup, read, open, ioctl, write, mmap, close, exit, etc. (almost 380 organization calls)
The Linux kernel System Telephone call Interface (SCI), aims to be POSIX/SUS-uniform[72]
Procedure scheduling
subsystem 		IPC
subsystem 		Retention management
subsystem 		Virtual files
subsystem 		Network
subsystem
Other components: ALSA, DRI, evdev, klibc, LVM, device mapper, Linux Network Scheduler, Netfilter
Linux Security Modules: SELinux, TOMOYO, AppArmor, Smack
Hardware (CPU, main memory, information storage devices, etc.)

Installed components of a Linux system include the following:[71] [73]

  • A bootloader, for case GNU Grub, LILO, SYSLINUX or systemd-kick. This is a program that loads the Linux kernel into the computer'south main retentivity, by being executed past the estimator when it is turned on and after the firmware initialization is performed.
  • An init program, such as the traditional sysvinit and the newer systemd, OpenRC and Upstart. This is the start process launched by the Linux kernel, and is at the root of the process tree: in other terms, all processes are launched through init. It starts processes such as system services and login prompts (whether graphical or in terminal mode).
  • Software libraries, which contain lawmaking that can be used by running processes. On Linux systems using ELF-format executable files, the dynamic linker that manages the use of dynamic libraries is known as ld-linux.and so. If the system is prepare upwards for the user to compile software themselves, header files will also be included to describe the interface of installed libraries. Besides the most commonly used software library on Linux systems, the GNU C Library (glibc), in that location are numerous other libraries, such as SDL and Mesa.
    • C standard library is the library needed to run C programs on a figurer arrangement, with the GNU C Library beingness the standard. For embedded systems, alternatives such as the musl, EGLIBC (a glibc fork once used by Debian) and uClibc (which was designed for uClinux) take been developed, although the last two are no longer maintained. Android uses its ain C library, Bionic.
  • Basic Unix commands, with GNU coreutils being the standard implementation. Alternatives exist for embedded systems, such as the copyleft BusyBox, and the BSD-licensed Toybox.
  • Widget toolkits are the libraries used to build graphical user interfaces (GUIs) for software applications. Numerous widget toolkits are available, including GTK and Ataxia developed past the GNOME projection, Qt adult by the Qt Projection and led by The Qt Company, and Enlightenment Foundation Libraries (EFL) developed primarily past the Enlightenment team.
  • A package management system, such as dpkg and RPM. Alternatively packages can be compiled from binary or source tarballs.
  • User interface programs such every bit control shells or windowing environments.

User interface [edit]

The user interface, likewise known every bit the shell, is either a command-line interface (CLI), a graphical user interface (GUI), or controls attached to the associated hardware, which is mutual for embedded systems. For desktop systems, the default user interface is ordinarily graphical, although the CLI is usually available through last emulator windows or on a separate virtual panel.

CLI shells are text-based user interfaces, which use text for both input and output. The dominant beat out used in Linux is the Bourne-Again Trounce (fustigate), originally adult for the GNU project. Most low-level Linux components, including various parts of the userland, use the CLI exclusively. The CLI is especially suited for automation of repetitive or delayed tasks and provides very uncomplicated inter-process communication.

On desktop systems, the near popular user interfaces are the GUI shells, packaged together with extensive desktop environments, such as KDE Plasma, GNOME, MATE, Cinnamon, LXDE, Pantheon and Xfce, though a diversity of additional user interfaces exist. Most popular user interfaces are based on the X Window Organization, often only called "X". Information technology provides network transparency and permits a graphical awarding running on i system to be displayed on another where a user may interact with the application; however, certain extensions of the X Window Organisation are not capable of working over the network.[74] Several X brandish servers exist, with the reference implementation, Ten.Org Server, beingness the almost pop.

Server distributions might provide a command-line interface for developers and administrators, but provide a custom interface towards end-users, designed for the apply-instance of the arrangement. This custom interface is accessed through a client that resides on some other system, not necessarily Linux based.

Several types of window managers exist for X11, including tiling, dynamic, stacking and compositing. Window managers provide means to command the placement and appearance of individual application windows, and interact with the 10 Window System. Simpler X window managers such equally dwm, ratpoison, i3wm, or herbstluftwm provide a minimalist functionality, while more elaborate window managers such every bit FVWM, Enlightenment or Window Maker provide more features such as a built-in taskbar and themes, only are nevertheless lightweight when compared to desktop environments. Desktop environments include window managers equally function of their standard installations, such as Mutter (GNOME), KWin (KDE) or Xfwm (xfce), although users may choose to utilize a different window manager if preferred.

Wayland is a display server protocol intended as a replacement for the X11 protocol; as of 2014[update], information technology has not received wider adoption. Unlike X11, Wayland does not need an external window manager and compositing manager. Therefore, a Wayland compositor takes the role of the display server, window manager and compositing manager. Weston is the reference implementation of Wayland, while GNOME's Mutter and KDE's KWin are being ported to Wayland as standalone display servers. Enlightenment has already been successfully ported since version 19.[75]

Video input infrastructure [edit]

Linux currently has 2 modern kernel-userspace APIs for handling video input devices: V4L2 API for video streams and radio, and DVB API for digital Tv reception.[76]

Due to the complication and variety of different devices, and due to the big number of formats and standards handled by those APIs, this infrastructure needs to evolve to better fit other devices. Likewise, a skilful userspace device library is the central of the success for having userspace applications to be able to piece of work with all formats supported by those devices.[77] [78]

Development [edit]

Simplified history of Unix-similar operating systems. Linux shares similar architecture and concepts (as part of the POSIX standard) but does not share non-costless source code with the original Unix or MINIX.

The master deviation between Linux and many other popular contemporary operating systems is that the Linux kernel and other components are free and open-source software. Linux is not the just such operating system, although it is past far the well-nigh widely used.[79] Some free and open-source software licenses are based on the principle of copyleft, a kind of reciprocity: whatever work derived from a copyleft slice of software must also exist copyleft itself. The most mutual costless software license, the GNU General Public License (GPL), is a course of copyleft, and is used for the Linux kernel and many of the components from the GNU Project.[lxxx]

Linux-based distributions are intended past developers for interoperability with other operating systems and established calculating standards. Linux systems adhere to POSIX,[81] SUS,[82] LSB, ISO, and ANSI standards where possible, although to date but 1 Linux distribution has been POSIX.1 certified, Linux-FT.[83] [84]

Free software projects, although developed through collaboration, are oft produced independently of each other. The fact that the software licenses explicitly permit redistribution, however, provides a basis for larger-scale projects that collect the software produced by stand-alone projects and go far available all at once in the form of a Linux distribution.

Many Linux distributions manage a remote collection of system software and application software packages bachelor for download and installation through a network connexion. This allows users to adapt the operating system to their specific needs. Distributions are maintained by individuals, loose-knit teams, volunteer organizations, and commercial entities. A distribution is responsible for the default configuration of the installed Linux kernel, general organization security, and more generally integration of the unlike software packages into a coherent whole. Distributions typically use a parcel manager such as apt, yum, zypper, pacman or portage to install, remove, and update all of a organisation's software from one central location.[85]

[edit]

A distribution is largely driven by its developer and user communities. Some vendors develop and fund their distributions on a volunteer footing, Debian being a well-known example. Others maintain a community version of their commercial distributions, every bit Red Hat does with Fedora, and SUSE does with openSUSE.[86] [87]

In many cities and regions, local associations known equally Linux User Groups (LUGs) seek to promote their preferred distribution and by extension free software. They hold meetings and provide free demonstrations, grooming, technical back up, and operating system installation to new users. Many Net communities also provide back up to Linux users and developers. Well-nigh distributions and gratuitous software / open-source projects take IRC chatrooms or newsgroups. Online forums are another ways for support, with notable examples being LinuxQuestions.org and the various distribution specific support and customs forums, such as ones for Ubuntu, Fedora, and Gentoo. Linux distributions host mailing lists; commonly there will be a specific topic such equally usage or evolution for a given list.

There are several technology websites with a Linux focus. Impress magazines on Linux often bundle cover disks that carry software or fifty-fifty complete Linux distributions.[88] [89]

Although Linux distributions are generally available without charge, several large corporations sell, support, and contribute to the evolution of the components of the organisation and of gratis software. An analysis of the Linux kernel in 2017 showed that well over 85% of the code adult past programmers who are being paid for their piece of work, leaving about eight.2% to unpaid developers and iv.1% unclassified.[90] Some of the major corporations that provide contributions include Intel, Samsung, Google, AMD, Oracle and Facebook.[91] A number of corporations, notably Red Chapeau, Approved and SUSE, have built a significant business organisation around Linux distributions.

The free software licenses, on which the diverse software packages of a distribution built on the Linux kernel are based, explicitly conform and encourage commercialization; the relationship between a Linux distribution as a whole and individual vendors may be seen as symbiotic. I mutual concern model of commercial suppliers is charging for support, especially for business users. A number of companies also offer a specialized business version of their distribution, which adds proprietary back up packages and tools to administrate higher numbers of installations or to simplify administrative tasks.

Another business model is to give abroad the software to sell hardware. This used to be the norm in the figurer manufacture, with operating systems such equally CP/M, Apple tree DOS and versions of Mac OS prior to 7.half dozen freely copyable (but not modifiable). Equally computer hardware standardized throughout the 1980s, it became more hard for hardware manufacturers to profit from this tactic, as the Os would run on any manufacturer'southward computer that shared the same compages.

Programming on Linux [edit]

About programming languages support Linux either direct or through 3rd-party community based ports.[92] The original development tools used for building both Linux applications and operating system programs are found within the GNU toolchain, which includes the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) and the GNU Build System. Amongst others, GCC provides compilers for Ada, C, C++, Get and Fortran. Many programming languages have a cantankerous-platform reference implementation that supports Linux, for example PHP, Perl, Ruby, Python, Java, Go, Rust and Haskell. First released in 2003, the LLVM projection provides an alternative cross-platform open-source compiler for many languages. Proprietary compilers for Linux include the Intel C++ Compiler, Sun Studio, and IBM XL C/C++ Compiler. Bones in the form of Visual Basic is supported in such forms as Gambas, FreeBASIC, and XBasic, and in terms of terminal programming or QuickBASIC or Turbo BASIC programming in the form of QB64.

A mutual feature of Unix-like systems, Linux includes traditional specific-purpose programming languages targeted at scripting, text processing and arrangement configuration and direction in general. Linux distributions support beat out scripts, awk, sed and make. Many programs too have an embedded programming language to support configuring or programming themselves. For instance, regular expressions are supported in programs like grep and locate, the traditional Unix MTA Sendmail contains its ain Turing complete scripting system, and the advanced text editor GNU Emacs is built around a full general purpose Lisp interpreter.

Nearly distributions also include support for PHP, Perl, Ruby, Python and other dynamic languages. While non as mutual, Linux also supports C# (via Mono), Vala, and Scheme. Guile Scheme acts as an extension language targeting the GNU arrangement utilities, seeking to make the conventionally pocket-sized, static, compiled C programs of Unix blueprint quickly and dynamically extensible via an elegant, functional high-level scripting system; many GNU programs can exist compiled with optional Guile bindings to this end. A number of Java virtual machines and development kits run on Linux, including the original Sun Microsystems JVM (HotSpot), and IBM's J2SE RE, every bit well as many open-source projects like Kaffe and JikesRVM.

GNOME and KDE are popular desktop environments and provide a framework for developing applications. These projects are based on the GTK and Qt widget toolkits, respectively, which can also exist used independently of the larger framework. Both support a wide variety of languages. There are a number of Integrated development environments available including Anjuta, Code::Blocks, CodeLite, Eclipse, Geany, ActiveState Komodo, KDevelop, Lazarus, MonoDevelop, NetBeans, and Qt Creator, while the long-established editors Vim, nano and Emacs remain popular.[93]

Hardware support [edit]

Linux is ubiquitously institute on various types of hardware.

The Linux kernel is a widely ported operating arrangement kernel, available for devices ranging from mobile phones to supercomputers; it runs on a highly various range of calculator architectures, including the mitt-held ARM-based iPAQ and the IBM mainframes System z9 or Organization z10.[94] Specialized distributions and kernel forks exist for less mainstream architectures; for case, the ELKS kernel fork tin run on Intel 8086 or Intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors, while the µClinux kernel fork may run on systems without a retention management unit. The kernel also runs on architectures that were only always intended to use a manufacturer-created operating system, such as Macintosh computers[95] [96] (with both PowerPC and Intel processors), PDAs, video game consoles, portable music players, and mobile phones.

There are several industry associations and hardware conferences devoted to maintaining and improving support for diverse hardware nether Linux, such as FreedomHEC. Over time, support for different hardware has improved in Linux, resulting in whatsoever off-the-shelf purchase having a "practiced chance" of being compatible.[97]

In 2014, a new initiative was launched to automatically collect a database of all tested hardware configurations.[98]

Uses [edit]

[edit]

Many quantitative studies of complimentary/open-source software focus on topics including market share and reliability, with numerous studies specifically examining Linux.[99] The Linux marketplace is growing, and the Linux operating organisation market place size is expected to see a growth of 19.2% by 2027, reaching $fifteen.64 billion, compared to $3.89 billion in 2019.[100] Analysts and proponents aspect the relative success of Linux to its security, reliability, low cost, and freedom from vendor lock-in.[101] [102]

Desktops and laptops
Co-ordinate to web server statistics (that is, based on the numbers recorded from visits to websites by client devices), equally of November 2018[update], the estimated market share of Linux on desktop computers is around 2.1%. In comparison, Microsoft Windows has a market share of around 87%, while macOS covers around 9.7%.[27]
Web servers
W3Cook publishes stats that apply the acme 1,000,000 Alexa domains,[103] which every bit of May 2015[update] estimate that 96.55% of web servers run Linux, 1.73% run Windows, and i.72% run FreeBSD.[104]
W3Techs publishes stats that use the top ten,000,000 Alexa domains and the elevation 1,000,000 Tranco domains, updated monthly[105] and as of November 2020 estimate that Linux is used by 39% of the spider web servers, versus 21.9% being used by Microsoft Windows.[106] xl.i% used other types of Unix.[107]
IDC'due south Q1 2007 report indicated that Linux held 12.7% of the overall server market at that time;[108] this judge was based on the number of Linux servers sold past various companies, and did not include server hardware purchased separately that had Linux installed on it later.
Mobile devices
Android, which is based on the Linux kernel, has become the dominant operating system for smartphones. During the second quarter of 2013, 79.three% of smartphones sold worldwide used Android.[109] [ needs update ] Android is also a popular operating system for tablets, being responsible for more than 60% of tablet sales as of 2013.[110] Co-ordinate to web server statistics, every bit of October 2021[update] Android has a marketplace share of almost 71%, with iOS holding 28%, and the remaining 1% attributed to diverse niche platforms.[111]
Film production
For years Linux has been the platform of selection in the film industry. The commencement major film produced on Linux servers was 1997'south Titanic.[112] [113] Since then major studios including DreamWorks Blitheness, Pixar, Weta Digital, and Industrial Low-cal & Magic have migrated to Linux.[114] [115] [116] According to the Linux Movies Group, more than 95% of the servers and desktops at big blitheness and visual effects companies use Linux.[117]
Use in government
Linux distributions accept also gained popularity with diverse local and national governments. News of the Russian armed services creating its own Linux distribution has likewise surfaced, and has come to fruition as the Grand.H.ost Project.[118] The Indian state of Kerala has gone to the extent of mandating that all state high schools run Linux on their computers.[119] [120] China uses Linux exclusively as the operating organization for its Loongson processor family unit to achieve technology independence.[121] In Spain, some regions have developed their own Linux distributions, which are widely used in education and official institutions, similar gnuLinEx in Extremadura and Guadalinex in Andalusia. France and Germany have also taken steps toward the adoption of Linux.[122] North Korea's Red Star Os, developed since 2002, is based on a version of Fedora Linux.[123]

Copyright, trademark, and naming [edit]

Linux kernel is licensed nether the GNU Full general Public License (GPL), version two. The GPL requires that anyone who distributes software based on source code under this license must make the originating source code (and any modifications) available to the recipient under the same terms.[124] Other primal components of a typical Linux distribution are also mainly licensed under the GPL, but they may utilise other licenses; many libraries utilise the GNU Bottom General Public License (LGPL), a more permissive variant of the GPL, and the 10.Org implementation of the Ten Window System uses the MIT License.

Torvalds states that the Linux kernel volition non move from version 2 of the GPL to version 3.[125] [126] He specifically dislikes some provisions in the new license which prohibit the employ of the software in digital rights management.[127] It would also exist impractical to obtain permission from all the copyright holders, who number in the thousands.[128]

A 2001 study of Crimson Hat Linux 7.ane plant that this distribution contained thirty million source lines of code.[129] Using the Constructive Toll Model, the study estimated that this distribution required about eight grand person-years of development time. Co-ordinate to the study, if all this software had been adult by conventional proprietary means, information technology would have cost about US$ane.57 billion[130] to develop in 2020 in the The states.[129] Most of the source code (71%) was written in the C programming linguistic communication, simply many other languages were used, including C++, Lisp, assembly linguistic communication, Perl, Python, Fortran, and diverse beat scripting languages. Slightly over half of all lines of lawmaking were licensed under the GPL. The Linux kernel itself was 2.4 one thousand thousand lines of code, or 8% of the total.[129]

In a later report, the same analysis was performed for Debian version 4.0 (compose, which was released in 2007).[131] This distribution contained shut to 283 meg source lines of code, and the study estimated that information technology would have required about seventy three thousand human being-years and cost US$8.8 billion[130] (in 2020 dollars) to develop by conventional ways.

The proper name "Linux" is also used for a laundry detergent made by Swiss company Rösch.[132]

In the United States, the name Linux is a trademark registered to Linus Torvalds.[10] Initially, nobody registered it, but on August fifteen, 1994, William R. Della Croce, Jr. filed for the trademark Linux, and then demanded royalties from Linux distributors. In 1996, Torvalds and some affected organizations sued him to have the trademark assigned to Torvalds, and, in 1997, the case was settled.[133] The licensing of the trademark has since been handled past the Linux Marking Institute (LMI). Torvalds has stated that he trademarked the name only to prevent someone else from using information technology. LMI originally charged a nominal sublicensing fee for use of the Linux name as office of trademarks,[134] only afterward changed this in favor of offer a complimentary, perpetual worldwide sublicense.[135]

The Complimentary Software Foundation (FSF) prefers GNU/Linux as the name when referring to the operating organization as a whole, because information technology considers Linux distributions to be variants of the GNU operating arrangement initiated in 1983 by Richard Stallman, president of the FSF.[16] [17] They explicitly take no issue over the proper name Android for the Android OS, which is besides an operating arrangement based on the Linux kernel, as GNU is not a part of information technology.

A minority of public figures and software projects other than Stallman and the FSF, notably Debian (which had been sponsored past the FSF up to 1996),[136] also use GNU/Linux when referring to the operating system as a whole.[137] [138] [139] Most media and common usage, however, refers to this family of operating systems simply as Linux, as exercise many large Linux distributions (for instance, SUSE Linux and Reddish Chapeau Enterprise Linux). Past dissimilarity, Linux distributions containing just complimentary software use "GNU/Linux" or but "GNU", such equally Trisquel GNU/Linux, Parabola GNU/Linux-libre, BLAG Linux and GNU, and gNewSense.

Equally of May 2011[update], about eight% to 13% of a modern Linux distribution is made of GNU components (the range depending on whether GNOME is considered role of GNU), as determined by counting lines of source code making upwardly Ubuntu'south "Natty" release; meanwhile, 6% is taken by the Linux kernel, increased to 9% when including its straight dependencies.[140]

Encounter likewise [edit]

  • Comparison of Linux distributions
  • Comparison of open up source and closed source
  • Comparison of operating systems
  • Comparison of X Window System desktop environments
  • Criticism of Linux
  • Linux Documentation Project
  • Linux From Scratch
  • Linux Software Map
  • List of Linux distributions
  • Listing of games released on Linux
  • List of operating systems
  • Loadable kernel module
  • Usage share of operating systems
  • Timeline of operating systems

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ GNU is the primary userland used in nearly all Linux distributions.[ii] [3] [four] The GNU userland contains system daemons, user applications, the GUI, and various libraries. GNU Core utilities are an essential part of most distributions. Virtually Linux distributions employ the X Window system.[5] Other components of the userland, such as the widget toolkit, vary with the specific distribution, desktop environment, and user configuration.[half dozen]
  2. ^ BusyBox is an alternative userland used in many embedded Linux distributions. BusyBox replaces well-nigh GNU Core utilities.[7] 1 notable Desktop distribution using BusyBox is Alpine_Linux[8]
  3. ^ "Linux" trademark is owned by Linus Torvalds[10] and administered by the Linux Mark Institute.

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External links [edit]

  • Linux at Curlie
  • Graphical map of Linux Internals
  • Linux kernel website and archives
  • The History of Linux in GIT Repository Format 1992–2010

astonprignoced45.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux

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